Should Prostitution be legalized?

Prostitution, while regulated and legal in other countries, remains heavily stigmatized and criminalized in most of the United states. While there are plenty of economic and labor benefits of prostitution, the vast majority of Americans are against it for moral reasons. With 58.7% of the world’s prostitution occurring (Cho, Neumayer 2012) in places where it is completely prohibited, one might correlate prohibition with an increase in the activity.But is it really that bad? Surely a practice that is commonplace and even viewed as natural in other countries could not pose a threat to break the very moral fibers of the United States and induce Armageddon, as some conservative critics claim. Many advocates claim that prostitution can have many social and economic advantages if legalized, for example labor rights and tax revenue. It’s easy to see how this hot topic has become such a slippery slope. I set out to find the answer to this question and more as I researched the pros and cons of legal prostitution.

anti-legalization

Many argue that prostitution would cause an influx of human trafficking into the United states, despite its already high amount. An empirical study by Seo-Young Cho and Eric Neumayer examined the numbers of the impact of legal prostitution on human trafficking world wide. They concluded that it may increase the amount of human trafficking. Their conclusion was drawn from the fact that legalizing prostitution opens up the market for demand, which in turn requires more supply. In order to meet the overwhelming demand for sex workers, many young girls and women are being kidnapped and sold into international prostitution. However, they acknowledge that a cross sectional analysis cannot provide a definite conclusion due to the scarcity of reliable and comparable data.

My second empirical study focused on the factors and driving forces that cause prostitution. The researchers found that prostitution incidence and openness in countries affects the demand for  prostitutes. In addition, female youth unemployment also plays a significant role in fueling the supply. Policies that focus on addressing these underlying factors of human trafficking and prostitution could have an important impact on the market. Basically saying that many women turn to this line of work out of having no other economic options. Instead of being open and socially/legally accepting of prostitution, governments should provide more social and economic opportunities to women so that they’re not driven to prostitution to escape poverty or earn a living.

Pro-legalization

Trafficking women to work as prostitutes is obviously bad for a multitude of reasons, but many women choose the occupation of their own volition. My next article focused on the economic aspect of legal sex work. It (Levitt, venkatesh 2007) combined transaction level data on street prostitutes with ethnographic observation and official police force data to analyze the economics of prostitution. Their data shows that prostitutes earn an average of about $27 per hour, or roughly $20,000 annually. Although that amount is four times higher than what non prostitutes report earning (about $7 an hour), it is certainly not adequate compensation for the amount of risks involved, which include violence, rape, Sexually transmitted diseases and even murder. This leads me to one of the pro-legalization arguments. If it were legalized, they would have worker’s rights to fair wages and a safe work environment, like any other occupation. Legalization would provide protections for these women, who are human like everyone else, although the stigmatization of their job influences society to treat them as lesser beings.

A fourth empirical study (Moffat, Peter 2004) also examines the economic impact, but in the United Kingdom. Researchers studied demographics of both clients and workers, putting together statistics on how much money is made in different neighborhoods, from different races of clients, etc. Legalized prostitution generates an annual 194 million pounds annually in greater London alone. Tax revenue generated by this is estimated at 250 million pounds. In the state of Nevada in the United states, tax revenue was to fund public investments such as education and roads, but the Republican party blocked it because they didn’t want ‘schools to be funded by immoral activities’. I’m no economist but the state of education inequality is so drastic in this country that I think kids need all the funding they can get, regardless of whether the sources of revenue are “moral” or not.

Research limitations

Perhaps the biggest issue with this data is that it is not comprehensive. There are many different types of prostitutes, laws, demographic data and driving forces that together propel the industry. It is nearly impossible to account for all these facets. Its also hard to collect data in countries where it is illegal, since workers are reluctant to give information for fear of prosecution. There’s also not a definitive way to seperate human trafficking from willing workers, since no legal protections are in place in many countries. Much of the data presented is cross sectional, however.

My Conclusions

After examining both sides of the argument and empirical data, I have decided that I am pro-legalization. Although I personally would not turn to prostitution as an occupation, I recognize that it is going to happen regardless of its legal status and that sex workers are people too. Sex work is a job just like anything else, and as such needs to have rights and protections for workers. The right to a safe work environment, fair wages, and monthly or weekly health check ups should be mandatory. In many countries where prostitution is legal, workers are required to undergo regular health check ups and sexually transmitted disease tests. Brothels and workers are required to go through the licensing process and meet other legal requirements. I feel that this reduces the amount of women trafficked into forcibly working these jobs. With legal protections, a worker could contact the police for help without worrying about getting arrested or deported in the event that she was forcibly trafficked into prostitution.

With unemployment being a major issue in America right now, prostitution could provide many women and men job opportunities. Although it may not be a glamorous job, it certainly does earn a lot more money an hour than taking a minimum wage job at McDonald’s or Wal-Mart. The higher wages earned could help poor women save up for college in order to secure an education and better job opportunities. Single mothers could also use it as a way to make a decent living and still have time to spend with their children, attending school functions and having quality time. It may even afford many people things that are currently unattainable due to high costs, such as health insurance, a decent car, decent housing, and higher education. Another major accomplishment of legalization is reducing the amount law enforcement spends on stopping it. From police task forces setting up undercover investigations to catch Johns to arresting the common hooker for soliciting on a street corner, money is spent on catching and prosecuting these people. The average amount the United States spends on each prisoner is $40,000 a year. By legalizing, that’s millions of dollars that could be saved each year and put towards better uses, such as education or repairing aging bridges. Those resources would also be better spent tracking down pedophiles and murderers, rather than hiring public defenders, juries and judges to hear tens of thousands of dockets of prostitution cases.

Levitt, S., & Vankatesh, S. (2007, September 1). An Empirical analysis of street level prostitution. Retrieved April 30, 2015, from http://economics.uchicago.edu/pdf/Prostitution 5.pdf

Danailova-Trainor, G., &Belser, P. (2006). Globalization and the illicit market for human trafficking: An Empirical Analysis of Supply and Demand. ILO Working Paper No. 78. Geneva: International Labour Organization

Cho, S-Y., Dreher, A., & Neumayer, E., (2012). The determinants of anti trafficking policies: Evidence from a new index. Economics of security Working paper No. 72. Berlin.

Moffatt, Peter G. and Peters, Simon A., Pricing Personal Services: An Empirical Study of Earnings in the UK Prostitution Industry. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 51, No. 5, pp. 675-690, November 2004. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=610479

 

BDSM

BDSM (i.e., bondage and discipline; dominance and submission; and sadism and masochism) has been both a subject of taboo and fascination. The rise in popularity of erotic novels has brought BDSM out from the shadows of sexual activity into the mainstream. The recent popularity of the Fifty Shades of Grey series has everyone from enthusiasts to school teachers and even parents talking about it. Some argue that enjoyment of dom-sub sex play stems from abuse or an unhealthy view of sex, while others argue that its actually empowering to both parties and is as natural as any other sex play. In the quest for the truth, I’ve examined four empirical studies, two on each side, in order to get a comprehensive scientific analysis of the people who engage in such activities.

The first study (Richters et. al) sought to examine sexual behavior correlates of involvement in BDSM and test the hypothesis that BDSM is practiced by people with a history of sexual coercion, difficulties, or psychological problems. It was conducted in Australia in 2001 with a representative sample of 19,307 respondents ages 16 to 59. Participants were interviewed by telephone. The results were that 1.8% of sexually active participants engaged in BDSM and tended to participate in less conservative types of sex. For example, most people also engaged in some other atypical form of sexual behavior, such as gay/lesbian sex, group sex, anal sex, etc. However, no evidence was found to support the theory that they were coerced or that their engagement was a symptom of psychological abnormalities.

Previous research on BDSM (bondage-discipline, domination-submission, sadomasochism) tends to treat practitioners as a homogenous group and lumps dominants and submissives together. This second study wanted to differentiate the personality characteristics of BDSM participants and show how they relate to sexual attitudes and behaviors. The current study (Hebert,Weaver) compared BDSM practitioners with self-identified preferences for dominance to those preferring submission on their self-reported levels of desire for control, empathy, honesty-humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, altruism, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. BDSM practitioners (80 dominants and 190 submissives) completed an online questionnaire package. Dominants scored significantly higher than submissives on desire for control, extraversion, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. Submissives scored significantly higher than dominants on emotionality. Dominants and submissives did not differ on empathy, honesty-humility, conscientiousness, openness to experience, altruism, or agreeableness. These findings demonstrate that there are unique features that characterize BDSM practitioners who prefer the dominant and submissive orientations.

The view that BDSM is rooted in violence and a demented need for control is perpetuated by the next article. This study (Warren, Hazelwood) is derived from in-depth interviews with 20 wives or girlfriends of sexually sadistic males. The study was designed to explore the sexual preferences of sexually sadistic males in terms of their consensual sexual relationships and to examine the dynamics by which they introduce their partners into extreme forms of behavior. These women report early life experiences that were characterized by physical abuse and incestuous relationships within their families. However, they attained relatively stable and normal lifestyles before meeting and becoming involved with a sexually sadistic male. Once immersed in a relationship with these sadistic men, the lives of these women changed radically. In describing these experiences, the authors highlight the relational context of these behaviors in which the sadistic fantasy of the male becomes an organizing principal in the behavior of the woman. They also emphasize the importance of forensic evaluator and law enforcement pursuing this type of information when attempting to describe and understand the criminal behavior of a sexually sadistic offender. The study concludes that psychological trauma and sexual abuse largely influence people to participate in devious sexual behavior and even violent criminal behavior.

Drawing upon the hypothesis that interest in BDSM stems from psychological problems,the case of a toddler diagnosed as failure to thrive illustrates the circumstances which may account for the infant to lead to moral masochism in adulthood. The observed behaviors of the toddler in interaction with mother show the pathological consequences of the infant’s openness to influences of the social environment. He becomes attuned to his mother’s wishes and performs behaviors which successfully evoke her attention and reciprocity even if these behaviors are contradictory to his survival. Such is the role of the submissive, who performs acts to please his/her master even if the acts are painful and/or humiliating. The mother’s own experiences with unempathic and hostile parents are reflected in her attitudes and behaviors to the child. Suffering and victimization evoke her interest although she lacks the capacity for an empathic response to pain. Her enjoyment of her son’s pain is comparable to a dominant’s enjoyment in hurting his/her slave. According to the study,”Berliner’s work on the origin of moral masochism, as well as the work of Steele on generational repetition, suggest the processes through which the infant’s attachment to a sadistic mother gives rise to masochistic tendencies which may be reenacted throughout life in an effort to reproduce the affective feelings associated with mother’s love and affection.”

Although each had their strong points, I’d like to acknowledge the weaknesses of each article. The first article could have been conducted more thoroughly by having participants provide other forms of data besides a phone interview. The sheer number of participants was wonderful but themethod was lacking. The second article was severely lacking representation. There were more than twice as many submissives than dominants who participated, with the submissives overwhelmingly female in number and the dominants overwhelmingly male in number. As such, its not an accurate sample size. The third article was incredibly bias because it used the wives and girlfriends of violent sex offenders rather than law abiding BDSM practitioners as a sample. The fourth was severely lacking in numbers, since one case is surely not enough to prove a definite pattern. It also did not follow the child into adulthood, where he could have stated wether or not his childhood played a role in his interest or non interest in BDSM.

In conclusion, I side with the first two articles. I felt that the samples of the last two articles were incredibly skewed and biased. The first two articles sound more reasonable and much more quantifiable. They also have a larger number of participants. The hypothesis that interest stems from abuse and is a sign of violence is out dated and seems to come more from a difference-equals-deficit perspective than a scientific one.

 

Haynes-Seman C. DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF MORAL MASOCHISM: A FAILURE-TO-THRIVE TODDLER’S INTERACTIONS WITH MOTHER. Child Abuse & Neglect [serial online]. September 1987;11(3):319-330. Available from: Family Studies Abstracts, Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 11, 2015.

Richters, J., de Visser, R.O., Rissel, C.E., Grulich, A.E., & Smith, A.M.A. (2008). Demographic and psychosocial features of participants in bondage and discipline, “sadomasochism” or dominance and submission (BDSM): Data from a national survey. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 5(7), 1660-1668. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00795.x Medline: 18331257

Taking sides blog #2

Modern science has developed amazing technology. In today’s world, some parents are even choosing traits such as eye color and gender for their baby.  While some argue that they have every right to as a parent, others are more concerned with future consequences of gender discrimination.

Traditionally used to decrease the chances of sex linked diseases, the DNA spinning technique is now being used for what some call “family balancing.” In the first article I read published by CNN health (CNN), a range of gender selection options were described. From the lower end $250 sorting fees to the full scale 99% effective In vitro fertilization treatments which cause upwards of $19000. It goes on to say that while many doctors do it, they are upset and often question whether its ethical. As many as 70% of the couples would not have needed the procedure if they had just conceived naturally. They did not carry a risk of genetic mutations and needlessly put the mothers through high risk pregnancy and painful injections for the sake of conceiving the preferred child. Towards the end. Bioethicists agree that  gender selection can be used as a tool of gender discrimination, which has very negative implications on society. For example, in China there are 117 boys for every 100 girls. And in India, there are 140 boys for every 100 girls. Not only does it lead to discrimination in the job and housing market, but drastically increases human trafficking of young women from neighboring countries to be sold as wives or sex slaves. Many European countries and Canada have banned sex selection for non medical purposes, in order to prevent a gender imbalance. However, it is still legal in the U.S.

The second article (cite here) talks about the unethicalness of pre implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD). The author stresses the point that children are not commodities or toys. She mentions sites where parents say that they cant face the horror of the 20 week scan because they don’t want to spend the rest of the pregnancy miserable that the child isn’t going to be the gender they wanted.

The third source was a debate page where parents were going head to head on the issue. One user claimed that PGD is good because it decreases the likelihood of parental abuse and neglect. Their argument is that if the child is the preferred sex, parents are less likely to abuse or neglect the child due to its gender. Infanticide rates would be lower and if the gender imbalance becomes a problem than maybe its time to reconsider (though no proposals are given on how to remedy the situation when it arrives). The issue seems to be one personal freedom to the user.

Finally, a fourth article talks about PGD for the uses of preventing X linked diseases and balancing families. In order to qualify for family balancing, parents should have at least one child of the opposite sex. To qualify for preventing disease, there has to be some indications such as family medical history that suggest the child is very susceptible to getting it.

In conclusion, I agree with the first two sources and the last to an extent. If its medically necessary in order to prevent disease, PGD is a wonderful thing. But when people use it for their own selfish reasons, such as preferring a boy because they know you would mistreat or dislike a baby girl, they turn it into an instrument of hate. Gender imbalance leads to an increase in human trafficking (Psychology today), which harms many people. And honestly, if a person is so deranged that they would treat their own child with such hatred because of a lack of a penis, should they really even be allowed to be a parent? I don’t think so. Parenthood should be about unconditional love for the child, not whether mom gets to buy frilly dresses and pink shoes or not. I feel that people who select their baby’s gender are also going to be parents that reinforce traditional gender roles, which only serve as a detriment to society. For example, telling a daughter who wants to be a scientist or doctor or engineer that she should pursue something else because those are ‘a man’s job’. Hindering a child’s potential because they do not conform to society’s gender expectation should be a crime. Likewise, prohibiting a boy who wants to take up dance or art and instead putting him in sports and encouraging aggressive and masculine behavior could conflict with the child’s inner sense of self and lead to conflicts throughout their life. Choosing a boy also reinforces the belief in some cultures that girls are worth less than boys and are property to be traded rather than individuals with potential, thoughts, and feelings. I am appalled that some parents put their own personal need for a child of a ‘superior’ gender over that of the good of society and the nation as a whole. There also the problem of what happens if their child doesnt conform to the gender roles of their biology. For example, a couple selects a female child but she grows up to hate the color pink, act like a tom boy and maybe even is sexually attracted to women rather than men. By the logic of people on the debate page, its okay for her parents to disown or mistreat her because she isnt what they wanted. Gender selection for non medical reasons is unethical and should not be legal anywhere.

 

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-144107/Should-parents-able-choose-babys-gender.html

http://www.debate.org/opinions/should-parents-be-able-to-choose-the-sex-of-their-children

https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201107/unnatural-selection

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/mother-tongue/9506234/No-one-should-be-able-to-choose-their-babys-sex.html

http://www.cnn.com/2005/HEALTH/conditions/11/16/pdg.gender.selection/index.html?_s=PM:HEALTH

Is sexual orientation biologically based?

Sexual orientation has long been a hot button issue, sparking heated debate around the world. Many studies have been conducted in the pursuit of an answer to this question. Some studies find evidence to support the theory that sexual orientation is biologically based whereas others find evidence to the contrary. I have conducted research on both sides of the debate, finding several valid points in each piece of Empirical research sources.

Correlation does not equal to causation but certainly provides grounds to base a claim on. Take for example the study that found a linkage between DNA markers on the x chromosome and male sexual orientation (Hamer,Hu, Magnuson, Hu & Pattatucci, 1993). The role of genetics in male sexual orientation was investigated  by analyses on 114 families of homosexual men. Increased rates of homosexuality were found in maternal male relatives of these subjects, but not in their paternal relatives, suggesting the possibility of sex linked transmission in a portion of the population. DNA analysis revealed a correlation between homosexual orientation and the inheritance of polymorphic markers on the x chromosome inn approximately 64%of people tested. Information about family members was obtained in order to form a pedigree, which would allow the researchers to follow maternal transmission of the trait. Since males receive their single x chromosome exclusively from their mothers,any trait that is influenced by an x linked gene will be preferentially passed through the mother’s side of the family. The study found it’s evidence through genetic analyses and chromosomal comparisons, but not all studies came to a similar conclusion in the same fashion.

A study of genetics and environmental influences on sexual orientation (Bailey, Dunne & Martin, 2000) recruited twins systematically from the Australian twin registry and assessed their sexual orientation and two related traits: childhood gender conformity and continuous gender identity. It examines two theories of homosexuality: the neurohormonal and behavioral genetics. Citing several other studies (Bailey & Bell, 1993; Pillard 1990), the research team drew the conclusion that both male and female sexuality appear to run in families, impacted by some evidence that male sexual orientation is influenced by a gene on the X chromosome (Hu et al., 1995; Hammer et al., 1993).  The study examined the distributions, correlates, and causes  of male and female sexual orientation. A questionnaire was handed out that included separate Kinsey scale items to assess sexual orientation, fantasies, attraction, and behavior. The main dependent variable of this article was calculated as the average scores from the Kinsey fantasy items and Kinsey attraction items.  The study found consistent evidence that familial factors influence sexual orientation and two related traits, childhood gender nonconformity and continuous gender identity. It is important to note that it was difficult to disentangle genetic and shared environmental contributions to the familial variance, though childhood gender nonconformity was significantly heritable in both sexes. The data was consistent with the results of a previous study of women women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (Zucker et al., 1996), a condition in which females are exposed to high levels of androgens prenatally.This condition has been hypothesized to be a model for some biological influences on female sexual orientation.

Despite the research showing a link between biology and sexual orientation, there is also evidence to refute those findings. After the publication of  A linkage between DNA markers on the x chromosome and male sexual orientation (Hamer,Hu, Magnuson, & Pattatucci, 1993) , subsequent studies sought to reinforce or refute the claims made. In a candidate gene study of CYP19, linkage, association and and expression analyses were conducted in a large sample of homosexual brothers using microsatellite markers in and around CYP19. Results demonstrated no preferrential transmission of any of the CYP19 alleles, which suggests that variations in this gene are not likely to be a major factor in an individual’s sexual orientation.

An additional study (Macke, Hu, Hu, Bailey, King, Brown, Hamer, Nathans. 1993)measured the degree of concordance of androgen receptor alleles in 36 pairs of homosexual brothers to test if variation in the gene plays a causal role in determining an individual’s sexual orientation. Evidence showed that homosexual brothers are as likely to be discordant as concordant for androgen receptor alleles, which implies that the variations in the gene have no profound effect on sexual orientation.

In light of all this new found information, I have come to the conclusion that sexual orientation is indeed biological. Although I do not think it is 100% biological, I do agree that biology is a profound influence.  The study of genetics and environmental influences on sexual orientation (Bailey, Dunne & Martin, 2000) won me over by its ability to recognize the importance of both biological and environmental factors. I particularly enjoyed the multiple approaches to the subject at hand. Instead of conducting research solely on DNA, it incorporated behaviorism and the neurohormonal genetics. I also noticed that one of the researchers who took part in the study has been on both sides of the debate, whereas many other researchers seemed to take an exclusive to one side position. I found that very refreshing and have a deep appreciation for those who can understand multiple perspectives. The first study was impressive due to its size and sample participants. I felt as if it made for a better sample population to pull participants off a national registry rather than through advertising in homophilic publications. I wasnot swayed by the anti-biological studies. I would have liked to see additional approaches taken, preferably more interview based than exclusively DNA testing.

Works Cited

Macke, J.P., Hu, N., Hu, S., Bailey, M., King, V.L., Brown, T., Hamer, D., and Nathans, J. (1993b). sequence variation in the androgen receptor gene is not a common determinant of male sexual orientation. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 53:844-852

Hamer, D.H., Hu, S.,Magnunson, V.L, Hu, N., and Pattatucci, A.M.L. (1993) A linkage between DNA markers on thec x chromosomeand male sexual orientation. Science, 261, 321-327

Bailey, J. M..,Dunne, M.P., Martin, N.G. (2000) Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an australian twin sample. American Psychological Association. vol 78. 524-536

Dupree, M.G., Mustanski, B.S., Bocklandt, S., Nievergelt, C. and Hamer, D.H. (2004) A candidate gene study of CYP19 (Aromatase) and male sexual orientation. behavior genetics. vol 34

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