prostitution

Prostitution is a controversial topic because some may argue that it is a lifestyle that people have the right to choose and others may be against it because of all of the dangers and social stigma associated with prostitution. An article by Teresa Carrasquillo named Understanding Prostitution And The Need For Reform gives a historical overview of prostitution, reasons why it is criminalized, and reasons why it should be decriminalized (Carrasquillo, 2014). Carrasquillo points out that despite efforts to deter women from becoming prostitutes, there is still a large incidence of prostitution and that many women have been caught multiple times by the authorities. Criminalization of prostitution prevents sex workers from reporting crimes against them in fear that they will be in trouble. Also, criminalization of prostitution is said to be an attack on women’s sexual autonomy, costs a lot of taxpayer’s money to keep a large number of prostitutes incarcerated, and lastly, if prostitution were to be decriminalized, perhaps there would be more control of the spread of STDs (Carrasquillo, 2014). One of the main reasons stated of why prostitution should be legal is because women’s lives would not be so jeopardized if there were a form of lawful protection on them against domestic violence and rape (Carrasquillo, 2014). While evident risks exist for sex workers, many of them are in that profession by their own free will. In Novak’s (2009) article, he states that criminalization of prostitution is a violation to our right to privacy. It makes sense that people should be able to conduct their sexual affairs privately and that there should be no penalty for prostitution between two consenting adults (Novak, 2009). He establishes that the Constitution lists “the right to privacy,” which one can infer that the right to sexual privacy is included (Novak, 2009). I think that Carrasquillo’s article gave a strong argument in favor of prostitution because it recognized multiple issues with the current form of prostitution criminalization.
Although decriminalization of prostitution seems to eradicate some issues, we should consider both sides and weigh out the pros and cons. An article by Farley (2009) states that women suffer from physical and psychological damage or abuse as a result of being a prostitute. They are degraded by society and as they start to lose their self-identity or autonomy, pimps begin to have complete control (Farley, 2009). Another claim is that prostitution promotes the dehumanization of women. Family values decrease and demand for sex-trafficking rises (Farley, 2009). Some prostitutes only consent to what they do because they have no other choice to support themselves. Raymond’s (2003) article outlines ten specific reasons why prostitution should not be legalized. One of them supports Farley’s claim that legalizing prostitution would promote sex trafficking and that that legalization expands the sex industry rather than control it. Pimps would be considered entrepreneurs and many women would be sold into the world of prostitution from poor countries (Raymond, 2003). It is also claimed that clandestine, illegal prostitution will increase, and that women are still not protected through the legalization of prostitution (Raymond, 2003).
I think that legalizing prostitution can have some positive results in that there could be more control over the safety of women to an extent but there would be many who do not follow the law and do what they want with the prostitution industry anyway. I think that the side that is against the legalization of prostitution has the best argument by saying that although decriminalization of prostitution may help with violence against women, it will not fully protect women and will not stop illegal activity. The argument of legalization of prostitution to defend sexual privacy is weak because it overlooks all of the problems that may be associated with abuse etc. In conclusion, prostitution should not be legalized but more harsher punishments should be made against pimps and sex traffickers instead of completely blaming the prostitute.

Carrasquillo, T. (2014). Understanding Prostitution And The Need For Reform. Touro Law Review, 30(3), 697-721.

Farley, M. (2003). Preface Prostitution, Trafficking and Traumatic Stress. Journal Of
Trauma Practice, 2(3/4), xvii-xxvii.

Novak, B. D. (2009). Freeing Jane: The Right to Privacy and The World’s Oldest Profession. National Lawyers Guild Review, 66(3), 137-164

Raymond, J. G. (2003). Ten Reasons for Not Legalizing Prostitution and a Legal Response to the Demand for Prostitution. Journal Of Trauma Practice, 2(3/4), 315-332.

Blog 3

In many occasions, interest in BDSM sexual expression is considered taboo. Promotion of BDSM sexual expression does not really play a big role in mainstream media. In general, the only types of sexual acts in the media that mention any kind of pain refer to violence or assaults upon a victim. BDSM can be thought of as violent, painful, unusual, and for many, maybe even shameful. One can imagine that BDSM can be very looked down upon within conservative cultures or families. Although the BDSM community has been around for a long time, there are lots of negative views towards it and some consider BDSM a psychological problem while others call it a lifestyle.

One of the reasons why some believe that the practice of BDSM us unhealthy, is the physical risking that some of the practitioners face (Lindemann, 2013). Sadism and masochism can possibly lead to death in some extreme cases. Though the deaths are accidental, it may be the cause of greater criticism from the public. Many people make the assumption that people who participate in BDSM activities were abused either physically or psychologically in earlier years. There is social stigma against this type of sexual expression because it is widely misunderstood and considered a deviant behavior. However, BDSM relationships can in fact be turned into sexually violent or abusive ones (Jozifkova, 2013). When a person’s partner starts disrespecting the other’s safe word or not stop his/her actions at the request of their partner, the relationship may continue, but as a violent one. At times, the dominant refuses to wear protection, which may also be a sign of abuse in an unhealthy BDSM relationship (Jozifkova, 2013). Also, if people participate in BDSM activities simply because they are angry at the opposite sex or are motivated by aggression in any way, then their relationships become unsafe because there is more of a risk for serious intentional injury (Lindemann, 2013).

In contrast, some pro-dommes, or female dominatrix, express their belief in the importance of safety in a BDSM context. In one of Lindemann’s study, a couple of her informants or dommes explained the importance of consensual activities when participating in BDSM. Whether if a person participates in this type of sexual activity as a part of work or with a partner, the most important part of the relationship is mutual consent (Lindemann, 2013). It has also been shown that BDSM can be in fact a form of therapy. Within BDSM communities/relationships, persons with sadomasochistic tendencies can freely express themselves sexually without so much judgment and with a consenting partner (Lindemann, 2011). They are able to act on their compulsions or fantasies in a non-criminal way therefore channeling their energy in a healthier, non-destructive way. In addition, a study on 32 self-identified BDSM practitioners showed no significant signs of psychopathology according to psychometric tests of anxiety, depression, psychological sadism or masochism, PTSD, etc (Connolly, 2006). It was predicted that high levels of clinical psychopathology and personality pathology were common among practitioners of BDSM but this study showed otherwise (Connolly, 2006).

I think that BDSM is a healthy form of sexual expression as long as precautions are taken and there is mutual consent. Connolly’s research showing that a number of BDSM practitioners do not suffer from any psychological issues such as anxiety, depression, etc, is a pretty convincing finding. Also, it is very hard to find evidence finding BDSM as an unhealthy form of sexual expression as long as nobody is being hurt unwillingly.

Connolly, P. H. (2006). Psychological Functioning of Bondage/Domination/Sado-Masochisrn (BDSM) Practitioners. Journal Of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 18(1), 79-120.

Jozifkova, E. (2013). Consensual sadomasochistic sex (BDSM): the roots, the risks, and the distinctions between BDSM and violence. Current Psychiatry Reports, 15(9), 392.

Lindemann, D. (2011). BDSM as therapy?. Sexualities, 14(2), 151-172.

Lindemann, D. J. (2013). Health discourse and within-group stigma in professional BDSM. Social Science & Medicine, 99169-175.

Blog 2: Should Parents Be Allowed to Select the Sex/Gender of Their Baby?

The right of parents to choose the sex/gender of their babies may be seen as acceptable or unacceptable mostly depending on culture and personal beliefs. Some may consider the power to choose the sex of a baby outrageous because it would encourage sexism. A survey conducted by Green et al. (2003) showed that British citizens had little or no preference for their children’s genders and most would not use technology to choose the gender if they were given the opportunity. Dahl’s (2003) article also finds similar survey results and supports the right of parents to choose the sex of their prospective children. Dahl counters the idea that this freedom of selection would be an issue in Western countries like the US because the surveys showing very little data on clear gender preference are interpreted as evidence that gender selection is not popular enough to cause a major threat to male to female ratios (2013). In addition, other reasons for why people opt for gender selection is for family balancing (McGowan et al., 2013). Parents in countries where infant male preference is not recognized believe they should be able to choose their child’s sex in order to have even numbers of males and females in their families. They are willing to choose a boy or a girl and they do not believe they are encouraging sexism. A group of parents advocated for their right to choose the gender of their babies as the right to privacy in reproductive decision-making and family forming (McGowan et al., 2013).

There are some that do not support parent’s choice to choose the sex of their child unless there is a health issue involved. In the article Sex preselection: an aid to couples or a threat to humanity? the authors argue that gender selection should be very limited and only used in order to avoid genetic defects, etc (Benagiano & Bianchi, 1999). The problems they list gender selection will contribute to include the increased bias against female children, imbalance in the female to male ratio worldwide, and discrimination. In countries such as China and South Korea, male to female ratios have grown due to female infanticide or selective abortion. The spread of acceptance of gender selection is said to increase the male to female ratio, which could lead to women inequality and pose a threat to women’s rights (Benagiano & Bianchi, 1999). Other problems that are predicted among places with a surplus of men include increased violence rates, female kidnapping, rape, and sex trafficking (Sharma, 2008). While some countries are affected more by others by the right to select the sex of a child, polyandry, underage marriages, bride trafficking, and cultural devaluation of women are big issues that come as a result of this practice (Sharma, 2008).

I think that parents should not be able to choose the gender of their babies unless there is a medical/health issue associated with gender. The fact that over 100 million women have been vanished from the world through preselection of sex, abortions, or infanticide is disturbing (Sharma, 2008). I think that countries like the US have come a long way when it comes to women’s rights and equality and that allowing gender selection for the sake of having a boy is not justified. I understand that it must be looked at differently in places like India where women put a financial burden on their families when they wed or are not able to acquire certain financial goods, etc (Dahl, 2003). While sex selection may not be such a problem in Western countries, Eastern countries with strong gender preference are traveling to have procedures done to have ensure the birth of male children and therefore furthering the problem in their home countries. I believe that Sharma’s article makes a good point by identifying the possible consequences of having too many men: increase of violence towards women or violence in general (war) (Sharma, 2008). While a good point was made in McGowan et al.’s article of using gender selection as a method of family balancing, it is evident that many will not use the technology available for the same reason (2013).

Benagiano, G., & Bianchi, P. (1999). Sex preselection: an aid to couples or a threat to humanity? Human Reproduction, 14(4), 868-870.

Dahl, E. (2003). Procreative liberty: the case for preconception sex selection. Reproductive Biomedicine Online (Reproductive Healthcare Limited), 7(4), 380-384.

Green, A., Wray, C., & Baluch, B. (1993). On choosing a baby’s sex: what the future generation thinks, a preliminary survey. Psychological Reports, 73(1), 169-170.

McGowan, M. L., & Sharp, R. R. (2013). Justice in the Context of Family Balancing. Science, Technology & Human Values, 38(2), 271-293.

Sharma, M. (2008). Twenty-first century Pink or Blue: How Sex Selection
Technology Facilitates Gendercide And What We Can Do About It. Family
Court Review, 46(1), 198-215.

Blog 1

There are many different theories being studies about the causes or origins of sexual orientation. Some evidence supports the theories that sexual orientation is influenced by biological factors while other studies suggest that it is influenced by culture or other environmental factors. This topic is an ongoing controversy and research is still being conducted to determine the cause of sexual orientation. In his article, Wilkerson argues that sexual orientation is partly constituted by choice (2009). Wilkerson explains that sexual desire and sexual identity are two distinct things and that one influences the other based on how we interpret the desire. Sexual desire becomes sexual orientation only after a series of conscious interpretations of those desires that lead us to choose sexual orientation (Wilkerson, 2009). A study conducted by Scott L. Hershberger researched the influence of heredity on sexual orientation among a sample of both male and female twins (1997). This study used a large sample in which over 1000 responses were recorded. Monozygotic, fraternal, and opposite-sex twins were asked questions about their sexual orientation and of their sibling over time. The parameters estimated included influence of multiple genes affecting phenotype, shared rearing environmental effects, and non-shared environmental effects. The study concluded that there was no significant evidence showing that there are different genes affecting the sexual orientation of both men and women although homosexual and heterosexual attraction, behavior and self-identification were found to be more heritable in women than in men (Hershberger, 1997).

In contrast, a compilation of studies in the article Male Homosexuality: Nature or Culture? revealed that there are strong anatomical, genetic, and hormonal correlations to sexual orientation (Jannini et al., 2010). Post examination of homosexual male brains showed that there were size differences in various structures of the hypothalamus compared to those of heterosexual men. Also, another study concluded that “both gay men and heterosexual women display a brain activation pattern distinct from that of heterosexual men” (Jannini et al., p.3246, 2010). This is an interesting fact although it is an assumption regarding the cause of sexual orientation. Another study by Yan et al. studies the influence of neurotransmitter 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and the role of central serotonergic neurons on sexual preference in male mice (2011). The results showed that mice who lacked 5-HT did not show a clear sexual preference compared to the wild-type, which preferred females over males (Yan et al., 2011). When the lacking mice were injected with 5-HT, they also preferred females over males. In addition, mice lacking central serotonergic neurons did not show a sexual preference compared to wild-type mice who had these neurons and preferred female mice (Yan et al, 2011). This study can be generalized to other mammals and can be compared to hormonal influences on sexual orientation of humans.

In conclusion, there seems to be stronger evidence showing that sexual orientation is caused by biological factors. I think that the anatomical differences between homosexual vs. heterosexual men is one of the strongest pieces of evidence (Jannini et al., 2010). Although the validity of using anatomical differences as evidence for sexual orientation can be questioned, there seems to be consensus of this finding in more than one study. Information of biological factors influencing sexual orientation was widely available and supporting evidence was presented through different factors. It was much more difficult to find empirical data supporting the idea that environmental factors are the only determinants of sexual orientation. Hershberger’s study was useful but it had many limitations such as the sample being collected non-randomly and only from Minnesota.

References

Hershberger, S. L. (1997). A Twin Registry Study of Male and Female Sexual
Orientation. Journal Of Sex Research, 34(2), 212-222.

Jannini, E. A., Blanchard, R., Camperio-Ciani, A., & Bancroft, J. (2010). Male
Homosexuality: Nature or Culture?. Journal Of Sexual Medicine, 7(10), 3245-
3253. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.02024.x

Wilkerson, W. S. (2009). Is It a Choice? Sexual Orientation as Interpretation. Journal
Of Social Philosophy, 40(1), 97-116. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9833.2009.01440.x

Yan, L., Yun’ai, J., Yunxia, S., Ji-Young, K., Zhou-Feng, C., & Yi, R. (2011). Molecular
regulation of sexual preference revealed by genetic studies of 5-HT in the
brains of male mice. Nature, 472(7341), 95-99. doi:10.1038/nature09822

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