Olivia Barton's

Human Sexuality Blog

Blog 4: Should Prostitution be Legal?

April 29, 2015 by · 1 Comment · Uncategorized

Prostitution, or the trade of sexual activity for payment, is one of the oldest and most pervasive jobs in the new worlds and ancient – seen in almost every civilization and across all cultures. Since this profession has been practiced for so many millennia and it seems that every culture has a sex-industry why is there a controversy about its existence? The heart of the controversy lies in the fact that there is a human rights issue, does this industry perpetuate and cause avoidable harm. The debate reduces down to the supporters of the legalization of prostitution argue that by legalizing prostitution it could help women working in the sex industry by implementing regulations- resulting in better and safer working conditions and a decrease in the transmission rate of STIs. On the other side, opponents believe that proposition is an immoral, unethical, and lethal profession that harms and takes advantage of the sex worker. They argue that legalizing prostitution would have negative and unwarranted effects.

One of the hopes of legalizing prostitution would be the forecasted decrease of infected sex-workers with HIV/ AIDS and other STIs; therefore, helping stop the spread of these life threatening diseases. In one study that looked STI incidence in a sample of 578 sex workers in Melbourne, Australia (a country with a decriminalized and regulated sex industry) it was reveled that there was a very low STI rate in the individuals tested (Lee, Binger, Hocking, & Fairley, 2005). The sample and data were taken from sex workers who utilize a local Melbourne sexual health center (Lee et al, 2005). It is great to see a that a very low percentage of the individuals sampled have an STI, even more interesting was that most of these infections were due to other sexual partners outside of the actual sex-work (Lee et al., 2005). This low infection rate in the sex workers can be attributed to a system that mandates regulatory screening for sex-workers and safer conditions, as expensive as it may be (Lee et al., 2005). Furthermore the fact that most infections are from outside or personal relationships could be due to regulation as well. This could mean that during “working” hours the sex-worker is more proactive when it comes to safer sex and is more likely to make safer choice. Therefore, on personal time and with personal relationships the worker they might not be as diligent or willing to make sure the sex is completely safe. Thus confirming that a safer and more regulated system can prevent the spread of deadly diseases by implementing structure in what used to be a very freeform industry.

This study did have limitations. The sample was relatively small and not as representative as it could have been, therefore it lacks generalizability. Furthermore, the sample was drawn from sex-workers who regularly go to health clinics to get tested- this sample could have been filled with more conscientious people. The more contentious a person is the more likely they are to have safer sex in general, which then leads to lower infection rates. Potentially this could lead to an overestimate to how well decriminalization and regulation have affected STI levels in sex workers. However, it is beneficial to see that in a legalized system regulation has shown to stop or decelerate the spread of dangerous infections during “working” hours in some samples of individuals.

In a pre-test/post-test study looking at two different groups of prostitutes before legalization and after legalization it was found that there was a shift towards safer sex (Seib, Dunne, Fischer, & Najman, 2010). The Australian study found that after legalization of prostitution there was a shift to a bigger demand for different types of sexual activity (BDSM, toy play, urination, anal intercourse etc.) however it has shown to be a shift towards safer sex, in regards to increased condom use as well as reduction in oral sex and exposure to bodily fluids (Seib et al., 2010). Furthermore, the study showed that there were differences between sex workers in brothel houses and sex-workers that were street based (Seib et al., 2012). Brothels, just due to their nature, are able to be more regulated environments that are conducive to keeping both the sex worker and the customer safe- brothels are alcohol free, smoke free, drug free, and have strict rules in place about the importance of using condoms (Seib et al., 2010). As for private or outside workers, safe sex was seen not as prominently or as observable as it was for the brothel workers, rather there was more variety of sexual activities seen (Seib et al., 2010). This discrepancy could be due to the fact that street workers can get away with less regulation because they are not a business rather they are free agents (Seib et al., 2010).

This study did have some limitations due to the self-report of the surveyed sex workers. The women could have been answering the questions based on past experience before the legalization, not basing answers on experiences after legalization thus causing results to be skewed (Seib et al., 2010). Furthermore, there was no control group of illegal sex-workers tested to see an actual difference between the two systems (legalized prostitution and illegal prostitution) (Seib et al., 2010). However, judging the veracity of illegal sex worker’s answers would be difficult as well as actually finding a comparable group of illegal female sex-workers to survey (Seib et al., 2010). However, this study was interesting because it showed that regulation and legalization could actually change how sex-workers have sex. With the rise of safer sex, risks of sexually transmitted infections would lower as well as other sexually risky behaviors. For this particular study in Australia it seems that there is some progress for brothels especially under law; however, it is seen that in the private sector that these ladies show progress but they are harder to regulate. Begging the question of whether or not prostitution could ever be safe for the sex-worker and the customer?

Prostitution is a treacherous profession that has been found to correlate with a history of childhood sexual abuse, abuse from a current partner, poverty, drug use, and risky sexual behavior (El-Bassel, Witte, Wada, Gilbert, & Wallace, 2001). This study interviewed 113 street-based prostitutes in New York (El-Bassel et al., 2010). The study showed that 50% of the sample women experienced violence and sexual abuse from a “commercial partner” and 73% suffered abuse from their “intimate partner” (El-Bassel et al., 2001). Furthermore the study reaffirms common association with prostitution: these women tend to be impoverished, abused (sexually or nor) as a child, homeless, addicted to drugs, and use prostitution as a means to survival (El-Bassel et al., 2001). These women are victims to a cycle; a cycle that perpetuates because all these women know is abuse- this causes them to rarely be able to climb out of the sex-work world (El-Bassel et al., 2001). These women are raised and are products of horrible circumstances that established norms that are detrimental to their well-being; therefore, arguing that prostitution is a violation of the rights of these women.

This study did have limitations; the population was small and not randomly assigned. Moreover, these findings may not be generalizable to every sex worker in working in street-based settings. However, this study has shown that prostitution is not necessarily a choice that these women are making, it a rather a job thrust upon them to be able to somewhat survive. This job is not a job it is more of a death sentence.

Additionally, in a study that looked at the mortality rates in a cohort of 1,969 prostitutes in the Colorado area, it was found that there is a very high mortality rate in the sample directly due to the lifestyle that comes with being a prostitute (Potterat , Brewer, Muth, Rothenburg, Woodhouse, Muth, Stites, & Brody, 2004). In the sample, 19% were victims of homicide, 18% died to drug ingestion, 12% to accidents, 9% to alcohol, and 8% to AIDS. These ridiculously high death rates and causes of death are not seen or observed in any other cohorts or in any other professions (Potterat et al., 2004). These mortality rates for this Colorado sample are most likely generalizable to other states and countries, therefore making prostitution the most dangerous profession in the United States (Potterat et al., 2004). This data supports that fact that prostitution leads women to lives of torture and death. Augmenting the argument that prostitution is not just a job, it is a deadly lifestyle that women are forced into.

The study did have limitations due to its inferences about some deaths of the women and inconsistences that come with archival data searches (especially of secretive populations such as prostitutes). However, the numbers and mortality rates are indicative of the fact that something needs to be done to stop this violence. Legalization would not be the solution would act as a Band-Aid but it can have unwarranted and even worse effects, therefore the only way to stop the violence would be to abolish the practice.

One specific argument on the opponent side is that legalization of prostitution could lead to increases of human trafficking. This seems counterintuitive due to the assumption that prostitution causes the need for human trafficking not the other way around; however, there is a link that shows that legalized sex industries increase trafficking to meet the higher demand for sex workers (Cho, Dreher & Neumayer, 2013). To look at the phenomenon, an analysis of 150 countries was orchestrated as well as case studies gathered from Germany, Sweden, and Denmark, it was found that in fact there is a significant increase in human trafficking rates in legalized countries (Cho et al., 2013). This means that in legalized sexual industries more prostitutes are being brought over to other countries, maybe in the hopes to reap the benefits of a legalized system. However, human trafficking is a terrible practice that treats women as salves and puts them through tremendous torture.

This study did have limitations due to the demographic and particular subject the study is based on. Human trafficking and in some countries prostitution is hidden, illegal, and difficult to sample. Most of the data relied on precise estimates of the numbers of trafficked victims in the area- the true numbers will never be known (Cho et al., 2013). This is definitely a subject that needs to be studied again to be able to compare the findings. However, this study does rise some important questions- one of the hopes of prostitution legalization would be to stop or decrease the number of individuals in the trafficking market. However, research shows otherwise. Does this mean that legalization would not solve a problem but make a bigger and more heinous problem.

Finally, all of the ills and malignancies that come with prostitution will not be all stopped just because of laws and regulations. Melissa Farley (2004) argues in her article that prostitution is an industry that discriminates against women as well as creates a severe inequality between the sexes. Furthermore, legalizing or decimalizing prostitution is equivalent to addressing and noting the violence against these women and making money off of it, and protecting the customers and pimps instead of actually protecting and educating these women (Farley, 2004). As well as stating that these women do not have their faculties in tact to have consensual sex due to physical and mental scars (Farley, 2004). In conclusion decriminalization or legalization would not stop the violence it would just make it acceptable in the purview of the law (Farley, 2004). Therefore there need to be something else done other than legalizing the inherent violence, something like education programs for these women.

In the United States prostitution is still illegal for the sex workers and customers alike; therefore, evidence for the benefits of actual legalization can only be taken from other countries that have actually legalized or at least decriminalized the sexual exchange. These findings from other countries may not be generalizable for the United Sates or other countries looking to take steps for legalization. Furthermore, empirical research in and regarding prostitution is limited for numerous reasons, due to the population being elusive or hard to track as well as not getting valid information. These findings need to be taken with hesitation.

For, me I believe that prostitution should be decriminalized, or should only be legal in certain situations. Just because prostitution is legalized does not mean that every sex worker in the industry is voluntarily and willingly doing this job. I feel as though the life of a prostitute is hard and tough even deadly in more cases then I would like to imagine. However, I stand for the right a woman has to use her body in whatever way she pleases. As stated before, most of these women who are prostitutes are women who feel as they have no other choice or no other way to make money. That is why I propose that there should be more educational opportunities and assistance for these women to get out of the prostitution industry if they choose to do so. My solution would be to decriminalize the practice for the woman while enabling and empowering them to choose a life that does not revolve around the sex industry. Will that ever come into fruition? Probably not. Prostitution has not stooped nor will it ever stop, I mean its been going on for centuries – if there is a high demand, there will be a supplier.

 

 

References

Cho, S., Dreher, A., & Neumayer, E. (2013). Does legalized prostitution increase human trafficking?. World Development,4167-82. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.05.023

El-Bassel, N., Witte, S. S., Wada, T., Gilbert, L., & Wallace, J. (2001). Correlates of partner violence among female street-based sex workers: substance abuse, history of Childhood abuse, and HIV risks. AIDS Patient Care & Stds, 15(1), 41-51. doi:10.1089/108729101460092

Farley, M. (2004). “Bad for the Body, Bad for the Heart”: Prostitution harms women even if legalized of decriminalized. Violence Against Women, 10(10), 1087-1125. doi:10.1177/1077801204268607

Lee, D. M., Binger, A., Hocking, J., & Fairley, C. K. (2005). The incidence of sexually transmitted infections among frequently screened sex workers in a decriminalized and regulated system in Melbourne. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(5), 434-436

Potterat, J. J., Brewer, D. D., Muth, S. Q., Rothenberg, R. B., Woodhouse, D. E., Muth, J. B.,&…Brody, S., (2004). Mortality in a long-term open cohort of prostitute women. American Journal Of Epidemiology159(8), 778-785.

Seib, C., Dunne, M. P., Fischer, J., & Najman, J. M. (2010). Commercial sexual practices before and after legalization in Australia. Archives Of Sexual Behavior, 39(4), 979-989. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9458-2

 

 

Blog 3: Is BDSM healthy?

March 11, 2015 by · 1 Comment · Uncategorized

Recently I saw Fifty Shades of Grey, and to be honest I did not complexly hate the movie (I went into the theatre expecting that I would). However, I did have qualms with the writing and the script, Anastasia’s uncanny sensitivity, and Jamie Dornan’s acting. However, it introduced me into the world of BDSM and I assume it introduced many others as well. Here in lies the problem, since most of America sees BDSM as taboo or is ill informed about the actual aspects of the practice some people could take Grey and Steele’s tumultuous relationships as a norm in the BDSM community. However, this book is fiction- is what empirical data shows different or congruent with America’s accepted beliefs on BDSM or is it a generally healthy sexual variation?

Looking at the research and scientific side of the BDSM debate and controversy two sides have appeared. One side sees it as healthy and appropriate for couples that have a consensual agreement or are “into it”. Additionally, research shows that people who to engage in BDSM are happy, well adjusted, and normal (Richters, de Visser, Rissel, Grulich & Smith, 2008; Wismeijer & Assen, 2013). The other side uses the typical archaic mindset of nineteenth century America and sees BDSM as a coercive paraphilia. Likewise, they think the people who engage in BDSM have a diagnosable disorder or engage in these activities because of childhood sexual abuse; thus, causing these individuals to potentially be a danger to sexual partners, themselves, and society (Robertson & Knight, 2014; Nordling, Sandnabba & Santtila, 2000)

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Diseases 5th edition (2013) has Sexual Masochism disorder as well as Sexual Sadism disorder listed in the coercive paraphilias chapter. The American Psychological Association (2013) asserts that individuals with sexual sadism disorder have, for at least half a year, an intense sexual pleasure from inflicting physical harm, psychological injury, or even death to a non-consenting or consenting sexual partner. Moreover, individuals with sexual masochism disorder are characterized by being sexually aroused by being submissive, bound, beaten, verbally abused, or humiliated (APA, 2013). The DSM-5 is the sacred text for psychiatrists as well as psychologists. It is the text that determines what is abnormal or normal and how to assuage these internal conflicts and help the particular individual. Even thought only some of the sexual variations that BDSM incorporates are represented in the text- the presence of some of the acts is a testament to its potentially unhealthy nature. 

In a study conducted by Robertson and Knight (2013), the two researchers wanted to find a correlation between psychopathy and sexual sadism and if the two variables could predict sexually violent acts and non-sexually violent acts. The study sampled two groups of sex offenders (combined there were over 800 participants) and used the Psychopathy Checklist – revised, a reliable and valid survey that tests sexual sadism, and archival data in order see the correlation between the two variables. It was found that sexual sadism is strongly correlated to psychopathy and that sexual sadism consistently predicted a propensity to violence in regards to sexual and non-sexual acts (Robertson & Knight, 2013). This study shows that some participants of sexual activates in the realm of BDSM are unhealthy due to the state of being of the individual. Because of the psychopathy and mental distress of the individual, they get pleasure from the unwarranted pain of another causing them to potentially be dangerous to sexual partners as well as society.

The study did have limitations and strengthens. First, the sample was strictly complied of convicted sex offenders, meaning that maybe these correlations are only true of this demographic and not necessarily transferable to the general population. However, they did find consistency in the two separate populations of individuals they tested, so it might not be generalizable for the general population, but it does seem to hold true for a portion of individuals. Furthermore, this study used archival data, which can be suspect due to potential inaccuracies and incompleteness of histories of the individual. Finally the study was only on a male population excluding women from the sample as well as sexual sadists and psychopaths who have not been processed in the criminal justice system.

Moreover, research has suggested that self-reported childhood sexual abuse and sadomasochism have a slight correlation. In a study by Nordling, Sandnabba, and Santitila (2000), 164 men and 22 women who were members of a BDSM community in Finland were asked to complete questionnaires assessing childhood sexual abuse, physical injuries that required medical assistance, substance abuse, and if the individual had sought out psychological treatment from a professional. It was found that the incidents of childhood sexual abuse were significantly higher compared to the normal population (Nordling et al., 2000). The study showed that 7.9% of the males admitted sexual abuse in childhood compared to the average rate of 1-3% for the country, and 22.7% of women in the study compared to 6-8% for the general population (Nordling et al., 2000). The individuals who had reported childhood sexual abuse also reported elevated amount of times the individual had sought help from a therapist or psychiatrist and elevated times they consulted a physician for an injury during sexual play (Nordling et al., 2000). Meaning that for the individuals who had suffered from childhood sexual abuse are more likely to suffer more from psychological distress and more likely to pursue physically dangerous sexual situations. (Nordling et al., 2000). This study concluded by stating that childhood sexual abuse is a determinate of maladjustment later in life; thus, it could lead to unhealthy sexual variation that leads unhealthy relationships and unhealthy lives (Nordling et al., 2000).

The study did have some limitations. The first limitation was that the sample was relatively small and unrepresentative. Less then half of the individuals in the study were women. Furthermore, the research shows an elevated amounts of reported abuse for women; however, the population of women tested was rather small. Insinuating that 22% of a small pollution is not that significant and may not be of substance to say that childhood sexual abuse leads to BDSM activities. Furthermore, the study deals with sensitive issues such as childhood abuse; therefore, there can be memory recall issues, denial of sexual abuse, as well as not wanting to disclose these traumatic actions to researchers, which can ultimately skew data. Future research should drastically alter the sample size in order to see significant results.

Since BDSM encompasses so many sexual variations and acts it is hard to sample each one and find research to deem each act “normal”. However, the two extremes of sexual sadism and sadomasochism are two practices that are seem to be unhealthy for a small percentage of the BDSM community. When taken too far, there is pain and torture that causes people to seek medical attention not only to remedy broken skin, but broken psyches as well. When domination and inflicting pain over unwilling participants leads to sexual pleasure these acts are clearly not healthy. However, this is only true for a small portion of the BDSM community and more recent research has suggested that these sexual experiences are not an abnormal sexual expression.

An Australian study done on a representative sample of almost 20,000 adults has disproved some of the myths surrounding BDSM participants (Richters et al., 2008). This Richers et al. study gathered information via phone interview with male and female participants from many locations around Australia, and found that 1.8% of the sample population had engaged in BDSM activities in the past year. Furthermore, the researchers found that participants of BDSM practices were not coerced into sexual activity at a young age or ever coerced into sexual activity, and the men and women who had participated in BDSM did not have high levels of psychological distress or high levels of unhappiness (Richters et al., 2008). Additionally, the study draws the conclusion that engaging in BDSM is not considered to be a sexual disorder or stemming other maladjustments; rather, it is a sexual interest that people who are consider themselves to be more sexually uninhibited engage in from time to time (Richters et al., 2008).

The study did have limitations and strengths. First, the sample was so large that the researchers could not delve into the different “roles” each participant plays in the BDSM relationship and assess the physiological well being of the individual based on the “role” they portray. However, this big sample was also a great strength of the study because it gives so much general information about a taboo subject that had not been studied before. Furthermore, even thought the interview was done via phone there can be scant traces of concealing some of sexual history due to social desirability. Furthermore, this study is representative of Australia. According to the researchers, Australia has more social acceptability of sexual variance then say the United States and other more conservative countries do; therefore, the mindsets of the participants may not translate or be in complete agreement with other national data (Richters et al., 2008). However, this research does crush stereotypes of people who participate in BDSM and shows that these people are not sexual deviants; rather, they are people who feel less inhibited in their sexual lives and therefore will at least try BDSM acts.

Moreover, another study looked at a sample of individuals who have continuously engaged in BDSM sexual experiences and assessed their personality types based on the big 5 personality scale (Wismeijer & Assen, 2013). Collecting data from self-report questionnaires that measured attachment, personality (Big 5), rejection sensitivity, and subjective-well being the researchers found that BDSM participants when compared to non-BDSM participants are more likely to have more favorable personality characteristics (Wismeijer & Assen, 2013). The study found that BDSM participants scored high on extraversion, openness, subjective well being, and conscientious while they scored low on neuroticism and sensitivity to rejection (Wismeijer & Assen, 2013). Furthermore asserting that engaging in BDSM experiences are not due to psychopathy or past traumatic experiences but from people with a specific personality type and specific ideas about sexual freedom (Wismeijer & Assen, 2013).

This study did have some limitations as well as strengths. First, the researchers only collected data from online BDSM specific forums, not other BDSM communities or in collect data in person. Next, a majority of the participants tested were female therefore males were underrepresented. A strength of the study was that the researchers set up a control group. However, the majority of the control group was female, causing problems when making assumptions about a general population. Lastly, the research only shows general personality traits based on BDSM participants, future research should delve into particular BDSM acts and their specific personality traits.

In my opinion, society is living in the dark ages when it comes to sex and sexual freedom. Yes, we have come a long way in terms of understanding and accepting sex, but the fact is that there is still a cloud of mystery and taboo that ominously rolls into a room when people talk about sex, not even sexual variations such as BDSM. This is why BDSM is seen to as a disgusting perversion- because sex is a private subject and what is not considered “normal” intercourse is seen as filthy. However, I see, after this research, that a person (or a non convicted sex offender) who enjoys BDSM should be able to without hesitation or discrimination from society. If done correctly and safely and with communication with their partner then I see no problem with engaging in these sexual experiences.

 

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Nordling, N., Sandnabba, N. K., & Santtila, P. (2000). The prevalence and effects of self-reported childhood sexual abuse among sadomasochistically oriented males and females. Journal Of Child Sexual Abuse: Research, Treatment, & Program Innovations For Victims, Survivors, & Offenders, 9(1), 53-63. doi:10.1300/J070v09n01_04

Richters, J., de Visser, R. O., Rissel, C. E., Grulich, A. E., & Smith, A. A. (2008). Demographic and Psychosocial Features of Participants in Bondage and Discipline, “Sadomasochism” or Dominance and Submission (BDSM): Data from a National Survey. Journal Of Sexual Medicine, 5(7), 1660-1668. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00795.x

Robertson, C. A., & Knight, R. A. (2014). Relating sexual sadism and psychopathy tone another, non‐sexual violence, and sexual crime behaviors. Aggressive Behavior, 40(1), 12-23. doi:10.1002/ab.21505

Wismeijer, A. A., & Assen, M. A. (2013). Psychological Characteristics of BDSMPractitioners. Journal Of Sexual Medicine,10(8), 1943-1952. doi:10.1111/jsm.12192

Blog 2: should parents choose the sex of their baby?

February 27, 2015 by · 1 Comment · Uncategorized

Due to recent (and amazing) technological innovations, scientists can effectively choose a gender for an embryo via in vitro fertilization in conjunction with preimplantation genetic diagnosis. However, changing the building blocks of life causes controversy due to ethical and moral belief systems of many people. Some see elective gender selection as a means of establishing and creating a traditional and culturally acceptable family, or as a way to discriminate against an entire gender. Some people also see sexual selection as a means produce healthy babies for couples who are unfortunately predisposed to genetic abnormalities.

If parents were to choose the sex of their child it could stem from discriminatory thoughts and beliefs due to tradition and cultural values. If parents do not want a certain gender, then there can be disastrous effects from the parent’s lack of comprehensive care during the pregnancy- such as taking prenatal vitamins, eating healthily, or even seeking sex-selective abortions. In a study done on Indian families, researchers found that mothers that are pregnant with sons were more likely to get vaccinations and were over all more cautious with their pregnancy, while mothers pregnant with daughters were more likely to end the pregnancy or not take proper care of the fetus during the pregnancy (Bharadwaj and Lakdawala, 2013). With the advent of technological advances there seems to be predominance for wanting males causing a major gender discrepancy (Bharadwaj and Lakdawala, 2013).

This study does bring up some ethical points, the fact that discrimination starts in the womb, even with a “blank slate” women are seen as an inferior sex. Even when a fetus cannot even fill their lungs with air and survive on their own they are put down because of anatomical structures. Therefore, with families are choosing what sex they want to have whether it be by means of abortion, genetic testing, or even just caring more about a certain pregnancy- is that completely ethical? Or is the fact that later on in life this gender will bring most to the family and that is a reason to prefer and select a sex.

This study did have some limitations as in the data has been collected from many parts of India thus taking information from many sub-cultures and areas that have different views on male dominance in families and different socioeconomics statues can skew data. Furthermore, the fact that many couples might have reported being more likely to care for their son because that is what is predominantly socially expectable when in reality they did not discriminate based on gender. Furthermore, many of the data has been from decades ago, which can unintentionally skew data as well.

Moreover, in some countries due to cultural values and traditions parents desire having a male child then having a female child. Due to parental son preference, prenatal sexual selection has been common in India. According to a study that conducted by Hu and Shlosser (2012) they found that through looking at about half a million households that nutrition levels of young girl has risen while sex selection was present. While the mortality rates and malnutrition rates of young girls in the parts of India that do not use sex selection were high (Hu & Shlosser, 2012). This longitudinal study exhorts that fact that families that choose to go through a sex selection process are likely to have the certain gender they want and are more likely to take care of that child (Hu & Shlosser, 2012). This is true with females as well, if a family choses to have a female baby it is because they are either financially capable or do not have a biased stance on gender (Hu & Shlosser, 2012). However, even thought the nutrition rates are high there are also high mortality rates for females (Hu & Shlosser, 2012). This implies that while the female babies that do make it to childhood are more likely to be taken care of but, unfortunately, most female pregnancies do not carry to term (Hu & Shlosser, 2012). Therefore, sex selection used for the basis of gender discrimination and cultural values causes a mass killing of female babies, however it does stem from society. That needs to change before this problem of sex selection can be addressed. This study did have limitations as well, that fact that the study did not have a firm number or grasp on how many sex selective abortions, thus distorted mortality figures.

Furthermore, sex selection and the use of preimplantaion genetic diagnosis as a means to select the sex is considered to be a private matter and a way to circumvent the passage of hereditary diseases. In a study that interviewed eighteen married couples about their moral reasoning behind prenatal sex selection, the researchers found that their motives for pursuing sex selection were diverse and included satisfying self-interest as well as family balancing (Sharp, McGowan, Verma, Landy, McAdoo, Carson, Simpson & McCullough, 2010). Many of the couples saw gender selection as a means to control what they wanted their family to look like in a relatively effective and safe way (Sharp et al., 2010). Furthermore, many couples compared their choice of gender selection to abortion (Sharp et al., 2010)- implying the “the right to privacy” that was established by Griswold v. Connecticut and Roe v. Wade are to be applied to sex selection. This study did have limitations including the small sample size, as well as the fact that the couples might have answered the surveys and questions differently to ensure that the institution would still continue onward with the actual sex-selection process (however, only two couples actually proceed with the actual proceeded with the in-vitro fertilization and preimaplation genetic diagnosis process).

Furthermore, with the ability to adjust sex comes the ability to bypass diseases. In a study looking at couples trying to reproduce with hereditary forms of breast cancers and ovarian cancers (Derks-Smeet, de Die-Smulders, Mackens, van Golde, Paulussen, Dreesen, & Verpoest, 2014). The researchers found that through the preimplantion genetic diagnosis and in vitro fertilization, most children of seventy expecting couples were carried to full term and born without a genetic predisposition the breast or ovarian cancers (Derks-Smeet et al., 2014). Due to the fact that this was a clinical trial and that these couple and their children have not had enough time to see what the long-term effect are and if they embryos (now children) are truly genetically clean. Another limitation was that the sample was relatively small and unrepresentative. However, this does give hope to parents who thought that they could never reproduce because of health issues related to gender- they can know with modern technology (hopefully) create children.

In my opinion, if a couple decides to have children and they have hereditary diseases that are present in specific genders then testing or choosing the gender of the baby could be ethically tolerated. Solely based on the fact that the parents are choosing to have a child that is healthy and not at risk for certain conditions, thus giving the child the best shot at survival. However, if the choice is based on the fact that parents want to have a “perfect” nuclear family then I do not condone sexual assignment. Parents are altering nature based on what society has portrayed a family to be. Moreover, the only time nature and genetics should be altered are when a life can be saved not when a parent’s image can be created and brought into fruition.

References
Bharadwaj, P., & Lakdawala, L. K. (2013). Discrimination Begins in the Womb. Journal
Of Human Resources, 48(1), 71.

Derks-Smeets, I. P., de Die-Smulders, C. M., Mackens, S., van Golde, R., Paulussen, A.
D., Dreesen, J., & … Verpoest, W. M. (2014). Hereditary breast and ovarian cancer and reproduction: an observational study on the suitability of preimplantation genetic diagnosis for both asymptomatic carriers and breast cancer survivors. Breast Cancer Research And Treatment, 145(3), 673-681. doi:10.1007/s10549-014-2951-5

Hu, L., & Schlosser, A. (2012). Trends in Prenatal Sex Selection and Girls’ Nutritional
Status in India. Cesifo Economic Studies, 58(2), 348-372.

Sharp, R. R., McGowan, M. L., Verma, J. A., Landy, D. C., McAdoo, S., Carson, S. A.,& McCullough, L. B. (2010). Moral attitudes and beliefs among couples pursuing PGD for sex selection. Reproductive Biomedicine Online (Reproductive Healthcare Limited), 21(7), 838-847. doi:10.1016/j.rbmo.2010.09.009

Blog One: Is Sexual Orientation Biological?

February 4, 2015 by · 1 Comment · Uncategorized

My best friend is a male homosexual. We met in the 4th grade and I knew something was different about him. Early on while the other little boys were throwing sticks at me Sam wanted to braid friendship bracelets together. Then in High School, after puberty, he did not develop like the other boys- his body was lean, soft, almost feminine and his voice higher then most of our classmates. He was a boy who always knew he was always gay there is simply no other orientation for him.

Why do I bring this up? My argument is that homosexuality, from my experiences being around homosexual males an females as well as reading current research, has lead me to believe that being gay is more then a learned trait or behavior caused by one’s environment and childhood. However, this is a controversial subject that boils down to the nature versus nurture debate like many other behavioral controversies in psychology. One side asserts that sexual orientation derives from biological influences such as brain anatomy or homosexuality is a heritable trait that runs in families. While on the other side, research shows that environmental influences can cause differences sexual orientation as result of negative familial abuse in childhood.

In a twin study conducted by Kenneth S. Kendler, Laura M. Thornton, Stephen E. Gilman, and Ronald C. Kessler, the researchers try to show the heritability of a homosexual trait through monozygotic twins, dizygotic twins and non-twin siblings (2000). For their specific study, sexual orientation was categorized into heterosexual and homosexual (including bisexuality) then assessed each participant’s self-report data through questionnaire (Kendler et al., 2000). The results were that there was a definite correlation between heritability and sexual orientation (Kendler et al., 2000). For example the monozygotic twins had a statistically significant resemblance in sexual orientations then that of the dizygotic twins and of the non-twin siblings (Kendler et al., 2000). The researchers, even though seeing the genetic connections of sexual orientations did not eradicate the idea that environmental factors do not play into a human’s sexual identity (Kendler et al., 2000).

This particular study did not define or clarify the categories of sexual orientations, because they placed a binary system on what is more of a spectrum. Therefore, because the nuances of sexual orientation the data could have been. The study was solid in the fact that they just took twins out of the U.S population and tried to see if there was a very basic trend of heritability. For the next set of studied the researcher should actually do genetic testing to see if there is a specific cause of homosexuality using the same population of participants.

Moreover, current research by Christoph Abe´, Emilia Johansson, Elin Allze´, and Ivanka Savic studies and analyzes the cortical thickness in the brains of homosexual males and females in contrast to heterosexual males and females in order to provide a anatomical basis to sexual orientation (2014). They assert that the structural differences in the male homosexual brain are unknown; however, they could result from different androgen levels or more specifically, testosterone, which thickens specific parts of the brain male brain (Abe´ et al., 2014). Abe´ et al. concluded through MRI and PET scans of the 61 participants that there is a link between cortical thickness and sexual orientation (2014). The research asserts that the cortical structure in heterosexual women and homosexual men is similar and therefore different then the heterosexual male’s brain concluding that there are anatomical differences between males of different sexual ordinations that could explain why homosexuality occurs (Abe´ et al., 2014).

For this study, Abe´ et al. had an unrepresentative and small sample (2014). The researchers looked directly for male anatomical differences between homosexual men and heterosexual men therefore excluding homosexual women (Abe´ et al., 2014). If there was to be distinct anatomical differences between heterosexual people and homosexual people more research needs to be done to conclude definite proof that brain shapes and areas differ between sexual orientations and how so for each gender. Furthermore, this research had a relatively small participant pool, this would have to be duplicated and expanded to actually get definitive evidence that there are anatomical differences.

However on the other side of the controversy, a study by Andrea L. Roberts, M. Maria Glymour, and Karestan C. Koenen looks at the influences, for both men and women, of sexual abuse and non-sexual abuse in childhood as to weather or not it could cause same-sex orientation in adulthood (2013). First Roberts et al. gathered a rather large sample size of over 30,000 participants from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC), they were then asked questions that assessed their sexual histories, sexual contact before 18, characteristics of parents in the household before 18 (particularly looking at drug abuse and alcohol abuse), and if the participants had a step-parent (2013). The findings were that males had a higher likelihood of having a same-sex orientation after sexual abuse then of the women in the study (Roberts et al, 2013).

However, Roberts et al. cannot assume the directionality of the causes of sexual orientation, even more, the different types of abuse and maltreatment have different effects on orientation as well as perceived sexual identity for the person (2013). This study did run into limitations, mainly the fact that their data is based on self-report data of very traumatic incidents in childhood, many cases of abuse go undocumented therefore the participants would not be in the databases used causing memory recall to be a variable to take into account (Roberts et al., 2013).
This study did provide a large sample size and convincing data; however, the direct origins of homosexuality cannot spring from one situation in childhood (Roberts et al., 2013). I feel that it would make more sense if the person did have a genetic predisposing to homosexuality then this abuse triggered the same-sex orientation. I also find it hard to isolate the abuse and sexual orientation without confounding variables such as memory recall, economic status, or mental illness in family members. Causing me to think that abuse is just one integral part of a person coming from an over-all negative childhood and household. All of these circumstances compiled together could then lead a person to display same-sex orientation or identify.

Furthermore, other research by Andrew M. Francis has shown there is a biological basis of sexual orientation based on birth order as well as familial environmental factors (2008). Francis used data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, which gave him male and female participants, and information on home-life, and well as their siblings and parent information (2008). He found that, for males, having multiple other brothers does have a positive correlation to homosexuality while having older sisters decreases the likelihood (2008). For women, Francis found that any siblings male or female decreased the likelihood of homosexuality (2008). In conclusion, he blames environmental influences and a biological factor to the real basis of sexual orientation (Francis, 2008).
For this article, many of his assumptions were statistically insignificant, and the self-report data of sexual orientation especially for young adults and adolescents may be skewed because of social desirability. I do however, agree with his notion that more research needs to be done and that it may be a whole amalgam of factors that really do determine the sexual orientation of a person.

In conclusion, I believe that based on my personal experience of interacting and being with my homosexual friends that choosing to be gay was not a choice but a thing inside of their brain telling them to love the same sex. Sam never had to “come-out” to me because it was simple and non-negotiable. However, as many of the articles have pointed out, the origins of homosexuality are still up for debate because of the lack of research and the lack of solid, definitive, and uncontroversial proof.

References

Abé, C., Johansson, E., Allzén, E., & Savic, I. (2014). Sexual Orientation Related
Differences in Cortical Thickness in Male Individuals. Plos ONE,9(12), 1-14.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0114721

Francis, A. M. (2008). Family and Sexual Orientation: The Family-Demographic
Correlates of Homosexuality in Men and Women. Journal Of Sex
Research, 45(4), 371-377. doi:10.1080/00224490802398357

Kendler, K. S., Thornton, L. M., Gilman, S. E., & Kessler, R. C. (2000). Sexual
orientation in a U.S. national sample of twin and nontwin sibling pairs. The
American Journal Of Psychiatry, 157(11), 1843-1846. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.11.1843

Roberts, A. L., Glymour, M. M., & Koenen, K. C. (2013). Does maltreatment in
childhood affect sexual orientation in adulthood?. Archives Of Sexual Behavior, 42(2), 161-171. doi:10.1007/s10508-012-0021-9

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