Prostitution

The controversies of prostitution ranges from a spectrum of problems. Such problems include the exploitation of women, human trafficking, and spread of STD’s. There has been much discussion over the years as to whether or not prostitution should be legal. However, prostitution has been legal in several countries but it doesn’t mean that prostitution is fully accepted around the world. The following studies will explore the following question: Should prostitution be legalized?

As I mentioned above opponents of the legalization of prostitution claim that prostitution can lead to higher human trafficking rates. A study conducted by Cho et. al investigates whether or not there is a correlation between the legalization of prostitution and human trafficking. In order to conduct this study since the ability to actually track human trafficking is difficult, researchers used data collected from the Report on Trafficking in Persons: Global Patterns released by the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime. Researchers then created a plot chart to see which countries had the highest rating of human trafficking. By doing so, they can then identify which countries have a higher rate to human trafficking and whether or not prostitution is legal in that country. Results revealed that countries in which prostitution is legal experience largest incidence of human trafficking. In fact, countries with higher populations and GDP had significantly higher trafficking rates. Because of these results, policy makers are more likely to resist the legalization of prostitution.

According to Janice Raymond, author of “Ten Reasons for Not legalizing Prostitution and a Legal Response to the Demand for Prostitution”, states that legalizing prostitution does not promote women’s health. She claims that men are less likely to wear a condom due to the fact that they would offer women extra money. This could increase a woman’s chance of obtaining an STD and could cause the spread of STD’s. Additionally, Raymond claims that some of the women she interviewed claim that at one point they feared of being killed by one of their buyers. Thus, leading to unsafe “work environment”. Nonetheless, Raymond believes that whether or not government officials legalize prostitution, she pleads they might consider her oppositional reasonings.

Proponents for prostitution claim that women are allowed to have the choice to work as a prostitution and it’s a source of income. Indian filmmaker Bishakha Datta claims that many women in India turn to sex work due to poverty in the city. She also claims that if is prostitution was legal, it could potentially protect women. Additionally, she states that removing the criminal aspect of decriminalization of prostitution allows women to have rights and protection from their buyer. For example, if women were raped during their work shift, they would be allowed to be protected under the legalization of prostitution.

The study “Commercial Sexual Practices Before and After Legalization in Australia” explores the practices of sex workers before and after legalization of prostitution. The most significant findings that they discovered is that after the legalization of prostitution “exotic” sexual services increased, meaning that people were experimenting their sexual freedom and playing out their fantasies. This can be seen as a positive view because people are allowing themselves to explore their sexual needs. Also, sex workers have more protection specifically brothel workers. Brothels workers are more likely to have guidelines that protect the workers which ultimately protect them from STDs and abuse from their clients.

Overall, I feel like this topic needs more research. Many of the studies that I stumbled upon where somewhat biased. However, I would have to be opposed to legalizing prostitution. This is mostly due to the fact opponents have more evidence to support their position. Additionally, I would have to agree with the fact that prostitution could increase human trafficking. If prostitution was considered a business and some of it’s employees were trafficked, there is no evidence to claim that a person is considered legal in, for example, the USA. This could led to fraud, abuse to the women, and many other health related issues. For side B, I felt that there wasn’t any anecdotal evidence to support their claims. Also, when Bishakha Datta was addressing sexual workers protection, I felt that she was only referring to India which like I mentioned before is biased. Not every underdeveloped countries has prostitution. Since prostitution is a touchy topic, it’s really difficult to be research. But I feel the more research that is conducted, the more likely prostitution can be understand and can be officially determined whether it’s legalization should be moved forward.

 

References

Carrasquillo, T. (2014). UNDERSTANDING PROSTITUTION AND THE NEED FOR REFORM. Touro Law Review, 30(3), 697-721.

 

Cho, Seo-Young; Dreher, Axel; Neumayer, Eric. In World Development. January 2013 41:67-82 Language: English. DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.05.023, Database: ScienceDirect

 

DATTA, BISHAKHA; POST, DIANNE. New Internationalist. Apr2013, Issue 461, p28-30. 3p.

 

Raymond, J. G. (2003). Ten Reasons for Not Legalizing Prostitution and a Legal Response to the Demand for Prostitution. Journal Of Trauma Practice, 2(3/4), 315-332.

 

Seib, C., Dunne, M. P., Fischer, J., & Najman, J. M. (2010). Commercial sexual practices before and after legalization in Australia. Archives Of Sexual Behavior, 39(4), 979-989. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9458-2

BDSM

When society hears the topic about BDSM, they automatically think of rape, strapping couples together, etc. It is perceived very negatively in modern society. However, BDSM has started to gain attention, thanks to erotic books such as Fifty Shades of Grey. Sexuality in general is a pretty controvesial topic but, after reading multiple research studies, there could be a change in society when it comes to sexuality and BDSM.
In the study, Psychological Characteristics of BDSM Practitioners, researchers conducted their study based on the responses of the following questionnaires: NEO Five-Factor Inventory (personality dimensions), Attachment styles Questionnaires (attachment styles), Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire (rejection sensitivity), and World Health Organization-Five Well-Being Index (subjective well-being). Participants were separated into BDSM practitioners and non-BDSM practitioners and were recruited depending if they had visited a BDSM web forum or responded to their call off a Dutch women’s magazine called the “Viva”. The main purpose for this study was to compare scores BDSM practitioners and the control group based on fundamental features of psychological characteristics. Previous research indicates that BDSM practitioners is associated with psychopathology. However, results for this study concluded that BDSM practitioners are more likely to have favorable psychological characteristics than the control group. The study found that BDSM practitioners are less neurotic, more outgoing, more adventurous, less sensitive to rejection, less agreeable and overall had a higher well-being. Additionally, most of the subjects were highly educated compared to the control group. Overall, the study concluded that BDSM practitioners are in good psychological health compared to non-BDSM practitioners.
In another study, researchers aim to assess therapists and their perspectives of BDSM in their clients. In the study, Assessment of therapists’ attitudes toward BDSM, therapists were given a survey based off on four section: sociodemographics, professional information, self-perceived competence to treat clients who practice BDSM, attitudes toward BDSM, and knowledge on sexual minorities. Results concluded about 76% of therapist believe that BDSM can be part of a healthy relationship. Additionally, 70% disagreed that BDSM interest shouldn’t be eliminated by therapy. Interestly enough, a little less than half of the therapists felt that they didn’t have the knowledge to treat clients that participate in BDSM. Although there were mainly favorable attitudes towards BDSM, a big factor were the therapist’s sociodemographics. For example, older therapist were more likely to have a negative attitude towards BDSM. Overall, the attitudes of BDSM were highly favorable. However, sociodemographics and therapist’s competence played a factor on their attitudes towards BDSM .
In the research article, BDSM: a subcultural analysis of sacrifices and delights, researchers found that many practitioners of BDSM have to conceal their sex lives. Researchers gather their data by collecting questionnaires and have e-interview with their subjects. The researchers were able to collect personal insight on their sexual lives. Many of the BDSM practitioners’ stories focused on their concealment of their lives. One of the main reason of concealment was due to society’s stigma towards BDSM. In some instances, the practicers have had some of their loved one discover their sexual preferences. For example, one of the participants discussed how his daughter discovered his porn and his P.O. box in which he receives his BDSM accessories. He ends by concluding that “memory of that disaster painful” for him and his family. Many of the practitioners fear the loss of their jobs and relationships, if other individuals discovered their sexual lives. Additionally, it doesn’t help that there is a huge stigma towards BDSM. Overall, this “secret” could cause levels of stress and individuals not be able to accept their true selves.
The last study focus on the individual’s BDSM experience and their relationship of sharing their intimacy with their therapist. This study is similar to the second research study in side A. The aim of this study was to explore disclosure experiences of people who take interest of BDSM. Researched conducted about 20 interviews with about 65% males and the rest females. Some of the questions that were asked during their interviews include “Have you told other people who are not into SM about your feelings/ fantasies/ behavior/ desires? What is the relationship of these people to you? Why did you tell them? How did they respond to what you told them? How did you feel about their responses?” Much like the study above, stress was found in most of the participants. In fact, one of the participant revealed that he was considered “sick” and “depraved” because of his sex practices. Overall, most participants indicated that they received stigma during their disclose. Thus, leading them to feel shameful and guilty about their sexual practices.
Although most of the studies and articles that summarized are extremely interesting, some of them do have weakness and strengths. Side A has more evidence to support BDSM. For example, both studies were able to reveal that BDSM can be considered a healthy part of a couple relationship. Additionally, on the second study, most therapists didn’t have negative attitudes towards BDSM. The biggest weakness for side B is that the only negative factor of BDSM was the cause of stress towards the participants and the stigma that surrounds BDSM. There wasn’t very many study that showed results of any type of stress indicators such as depression or anxiety. However, I did like that side B did focus on the specific stigma that practitioners receive. In conclusion, I would have to favor with side A. This mostly due to the fact, they were able to give evidence that BDSM can be healthy to a relationship and gave the perspectives of a BDSM practitioner and therapist.

Bezreh, T., Weinberg, T. S., & Edgar, T. (2012). BDSM Disclosure and Stigma Management: Identifying Opportunities for Sex Education. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 7(1), 37–61.

Kelsey, K., Stiles, B. L., Spiller, L., & Diekhoff, G. M. (2013). Assessment of therapists’ attitudes towards BDSM. Psychology & Sexuality, 4(3), 255-267.

Stiles, B. L., & Clark, R. E. (2011). BDSM: A Subcultural Analysis of Sacrifices and Delights. Deviant Behavior, 32(2), 158-189

Wismeijer, A. A., & Assen, M. A. (2013). Psychological Characteristics of BDSM Practitioners. Journal Of Sexual Medicine, 10(8), 1943-1952.

Sex Selection

Due to current technology, it not unheard of for future parents to choose their offspring’s gender. The prevalence of gender preference in certain cultures and communities which thus makes it imperative to understand some the attitudes behind this practice. Despite the motives behind gender selections, many people argue that it could cause gender discrimination and gender imbalance within communities. So the question arise: Should parents be allowed to select their offspring’s sex?

In a study conducted by the Reproductive Biotechnology Research Center in Tehran, Iran evaluated the attitudes and sexual preferences of couples when using sex selection technology. With a population sample of 100 women, participants were asked a questionnaire regarding their opinion to embryo sex selection. These families must include a male and female parents with a previous child. Some examples of the questions include: “How important is it for you to determine the sex of your baby?”, “Are you satisfied with the sex composition of your current child?” and “To what extent are you satisfied with sex selection of your baby in case of non-medical reason (to have an equal number of boys and girls, to have children of any sex, etc.)?” The results indicated that in choosing a specific gender it would help benefit their familial imbalance and could help reduce illegal abortion. There wasn’t significance of the actual gender of the baby.

In 2003, the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority’s (HFEA) released restrictive recommendations based on sex selection. They believe that sex selection can be an option if there is some potential harm (i.e. genetic disorder) to the future offspring. Additionally, they argue that if a parent is willing to determine their baby sex, then they lack the character trait of acceptance. To clarify, let’s say a couple wants a female in their family instead of a male. However, the family receives news that they are having a male. Then according to the HFEA, parents are more likely discriminate their child. The parents should be able to accept all the characteristics of their child. Other ethical arguments that HFEA argues includes “sex selection as playing God; sex selection as an inappropriate use of medical resources; the potential for unequal access to sex selection technology; possible resultant disruption of the sex ratio; stepping onto the slippery slope to designer babies; gender discrimination and negative effects on the welfare of children produced using sex selection technology.” A lot of the arguments that listed above are in not included in McDougall paper. Instead, she mentions another ethical argument: parental choice of their child’s sex. The paper “Parentally: An Argument Against Sex Selection”, Rosalind McDougall argue that these clause interferes with parents ability to have choices when choosing the sex of their child and is not clearly define. McDougall states if a child produced by sex selection and there is no harm, then the harm threshold is not met. McDougall claims that the HFEA should revise their position since sex selection does not harm the offspring.

Although in the first article, attitudes for sex selection could bring benefits to the Iranian women, I felt like the second paper wanted to make an argument against the HFEA but there wasn’t even evidence to support their claims. Especially since it deals a lot with ethics. Ethics itself leads to controversies since everyone has different sets of ethics. As for my position for sex selection, I don’t believe that it should be the option. Many cultures believe that males should be the dominant sex that could skew more people to create males. Because of this, there could be a gender imbalance and discrimination. The gender imbalance could as affect the world population tremendously that is, of course, there are more males than females. I also believe that nature should be the one to choose the gender of the child. Like all human interruptions with mother nature, it could potentially cause some negative effects. What could those be? I’m not completely sure. Whatever my body decides to create, then that what was meant to be.

 

Ahmadi, S. F., Shirzad, M., Kamali, K., Ranjbar, F., Behjati-Ardakani, Z., & Akhondi, M. M. (2015). Attitudes about Sex Selection and Sex Preference in Iranian Couples Referred for Sex Selection Technology. Journal Of Reproduction & Infertility, 16(1), 36-42.

McDougall, R. (2005). Acting Parentally: An Argument Against Sex Selection. Journal Of Medical Ethics: The Journal Of The Institute Of Medical Ethics, 31(10), 601-605.

Nature vs. Nuture: Sexual Orientation Edition

The debate between sexual orientation and where it originates has caused much confusion in our society. Are we genetically designed to become heterosexual or homosexual? Did we chose a specific lifestyle? Countless studies have tried to end this debate but different results led to speculation of what is valid.

Research conducted the University of California evaluated scientific evidence on whether women’s sexual orientation is based on biological factors. The study focused on the neuroendocrine theory and genetic explanations of women’s sexual orientation. The neuroendocrine theory indicates that if a female fetus is exposed to male hormones then their brain is too be wired more masculine than feminine. In order to test this theory, research was evaluated based on a research studies that focused on a rare disorder known as congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) and the effects of the synthetic estrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES). The research found that women with CAH are more likely to have same-sex fantasies rather than actually conducting same-sex sexual behavioral.  Additionally, females with CAH are “predispose” to develop same-sex sexiual orientation. However, since this disorder is extremely rare it debunks the theory (Veniegas). As for the genetic component, the research study looks at the difference between twins who label themselves as same-sex sexual orientation. Two studies looked at monozygotic and dizygotic twins. The first study which focused on the monozygotic (identical) twins found no evidence of same sex orientation twins. Additionally, dizygotic twins studies found no evidence to support that their this a genetic component when it comes to sexual preference. Another research study that was conducted in Europe concentrated on biological and psychosocial factors that can correlate to sexual orientation. The study did find that their was a correlation between transgender having relatives who were also transgender (Veale). However, these findings are not significant to prove any theory.

The studies above debunk any findings that sexual is genetically based however, two studies found that their a slight correlation with genetic components to sexual orientation. In a study conducted by Burri et al. claims that sexual attraction is caused by genetic component for childhood gender typicality (Burri et al). Additionally, another study conducted by Schwartz et. al found that sexual orientation is familial, meaning, that men are influenced by their family members (Schwartz). In other words, if a homosexual male had a brother there is a slight chance that he might be gay as well.

Despite the two sides to the argument, I believe that sexual orientation is based on environmental factors. I feel like the studies that focused on the genetic component emphasied on family studies. You can’t conclude if there is a family member who claims to be a homosexual doesn’t mean that future generations of the family will claim to have a same-sex sexual orientation. Additionally, the twin studies in both studies contradict each other which made it confusing for myself to understand. Also, I’m not really sure if there is a specific chromosomes that determines your sexuality. I feel that your childhood has a lot to do with your sexuality. I have notice that a lot of my homosexual guy friends have some type of dysfunction relationship with their father or they do not have a positive male role model while growing up. Hypothetically, these men find comfort in accepting love from a male figure. Of course, this is just my opinion and I have no empirical evidence to support my accusation.

Burri A, Cherkas L, Spector T, Rahman Q (2011) Genetic and Environmental Influences on Female Sexual Orientation, Childhood Gender Typicality and Adult Gender Identity. PLoS ONE 6(7): e21982. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021982

Schwartz, G., Kim, R. M., Kolundzija, A. B., Rieger, G., & Sanders, A. R. (2010). Biodemographic and Physical Correlates of Sexual Orientation in Men. Archives Of Sexual Behavior, 39(1), 93-109. doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9499-1

Veale, Jaimie F.; Clarke, David E.; Lomax, Terri C.. In Personality and Individual Differences. 2010 49(3):252-257 Language: English. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.045, Database: ScienceDirect

Veniegas, R. C., & Conley, T. D. (2000). Biological Research on Women’s Sexual Orientations: Evaluating the Scientific Evidence. Journal Of Social Issues, 56(2), 267.

 

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